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I.
What does a digital project involve?
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1. Creating computer facsimiles or images of materials in historical collections |
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Essentially, a digital project converts printed, manuscript, and pictorial
information into electronic images for use in computer-based applications.
This is done in a number of ways and with varying levels of precision. The
most basic device used is a scanner, which creates an electronic image of
a document or picture in much the same way as a photocopy machine does.
But instead of being printed on paper, the copy image is viewable on a computer
monitor. There are also digital cameras that record images as computer records
rather than on photographic film. Cameras can create higher-resolution images
than scanners, which is often desired for pictorial material. In addition
to these reproductive techniques, a document can be rekeyed (retyped) to
create a computer text file.
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2. Organizing materials and providing finding aids |
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Once a picture, document,
or collection of materials is digitized, it is described by a finding aid
or metadata. Like a conventional library catalog entry, this metadata provides
both administrative control functions for the library and finding aids for
the user. And like a bibliography, the metadata can both provide the user
with a listing of materials relevant to a search, as well as retrieve digital
images from that listing. One enormous advantage of rekeying and encoding
the texts of historic documents and manuscripts in the computer is that
keyword searches can then link researchers to actual content within them
rather than just refer them to a title, subject heading, or finding aid.
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3. Designing a presentation |
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Once a historical collection
is digitized and cataloged, the information needs to be presented in a coherent,
meaningful fashion so the user can navigate the collection and retrieve
information efficiently and effectively. The design of most search and retrieval
software is based on that of conventional finding aids, such as indexes
and catalogs. In addition, digitizing collection descriptions and actual
text creates a database providing far greater analytical power than existing
analog and digital catalogs. Furthermore, the graphic capabilities of current
computer software support the creation of navigational tools, exhibits,
and interactive educational modules.
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4. Delivering a product |
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Once a digital project is completed, it can be delivered to users in a number
of ways. It may be made available to users on a terminal at your library
or published on the World Wide Web. Your digital product could provide an
extensive catalog of a collection and include many images and encoded texts
or it could present a selective exhibit of the riches within a collection
to entice researchers to your library for more services. You can also publish
a catalog or educational program on a computer disk or CD-ROM and circulate
or market it accordingly.
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II. Why undertake a digital project? |
1. To increase and broaden access to collections by identifiable constituencies |
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Your historical collections are likely the most underutilized area in your
library. This is largely because these rare and fragile materials need to
be locked up in (ideally) a climate-controlled location; require intensive
staff effort to produce finding aids; and demand close supervision to ensure
careful handling. Also, in the case of smaller libraries, the limited demand
for historical collections leads to restrictions in the hours they are made
available. Digitizing changes the traditional practice and pattern of access
to historical collections. Once in a computer environment, materials can
be made accessible on an unrestricted basis, 24 hours a day, if they are
published on a website. With the addition of electronic cataloging and searchable
text functions, finding materials will be much easier and more of the desired
information will be produced. Making your collections available with fewer
physical and conceptual barriers to access should lead to greater use. Delivering
materials directly to users will enhance their experience. And the incorporation
of engaging navigational tools and interpretive guides into your delivery
system should entice new and specialized users, particularly schoolchildren
and their teachers, into the library.
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2. To improve control over collections and the information contained in
them |
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With their benefits
of increased use, easier access, and enhanced protection of valuable documents,
digital projects can provide incentives to improve existing levels of management
in historical collections. The success of a digital project is directly
related to the detail and accuracy with which materials are described, classified,
and cataloged. Thus, a digital project requires a significant investment
in the review, assessment, and organization of collections. However, once
this process is completed, your historical collections will be under more
effective control in terms of both management and information. Accession
records will be complete, condition assessments up to date, and retrieval
systems more efficient. Collection records and cataloging will be completed,
expanded, and computerized. Generally, the time and funds expended on a
digital project that are not offset by a savings in operation costs can
be justified by the expansion of the public accessibility of library resources
and the resulting improvement in service. Once access is easier, you will
find that in the course of their work, researchers and scholars will help
catalog, transcribe, and interpret your materials, thereby expanding the
scope of your project.
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3. To provide an alternative format for fragile materials |
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One of the biggest concerns
governing user access to historical collections is the threat that exposure
and handling pose to rare and fragile materials. Unarguably, providing a
surrogate is a solution, and a digital copy provides the user with a visually
accurate facsimile, which is a more desirable alternative than a typescript.
While technology, standards, and practices are still evolving, it is anticipated
that digital images will play a significant role in the long-term preservation
of historical collections. But with all the unknowns that currently exist,
a digital project is better justified for reasons of improving access than
it is for preserving collections or their information. Libraries undertaking
digital projects as preservation actions must be prepared to update electronic
records and software until a long-term solution emerges.
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4. To provide a stimulating, innovative environment for users |
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The novelty of and fascination
with interactive computer tools and the World Wide Web contribute to the
acceptance and use of digital projects. The world is rapidly becoming oriented
around "computer-assisted" information systems, and the literate
and education-based users of library information are leading this trend.
Alternatively, libraries are excellent providers of information, and these
electronic communication systems are starved for data, especially data that
are well organized and clearly presented. And the heavy visual components
of many historical collections lend themselves to this medium. But perhaps
what should make the digitizing of historical collections a priority is
that computer and web applications are so attractive to young people, and
this technology offers an opportunity to engage children in the fascinations
of these collections and to begin to reinterpret history in more relevant
contexts.To link local information to global systemsLibrary catalogs are
already linked to a number of global information systems through a series
of local, regional, and worldwide networks. Updating catalog data about
historical collections and bringing them online and into global networks
will contribute to a broader awareness and greater appreciation of these
valuable materials and the information about local and state history they
contain.
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III. How to plan for digital projects |
1. Survey and evaluate the intellectual or interpretive value of collections |
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Before selecting an
archive or assembling materials for a digital project, you should conduct
a broader survey of your library's historical collections. Take a complete
and concentrated look at all your collections and determine what kinds
of information are represented in each of them. Also, evaluate their intellectual
content in terms of their usefulness to researchers and their applicability
to electronic applications. These descriptions and prioritizations will
help support selections for digital projects. A number of factors should
be considered, such as the range of subjects contained in each collection,
the types of materials represented, the research topics addressed, the
historical period covered, the geographical area involved, and the people
associated. Of course, those collections that are already renowned for
their informational or historical value and in demand by users will find
their way to the top of the list (and you should use them as models for
the assessment of other collections). However, careful consideration should
be given to seemingly less valuable and more fragmentary collections to
make sure that they are represented in this framework. This is important
to the integrity of the selection process and prepares for any unexpected
opportunity to plan a project including a lower-ranked collection.Finally,
to prevent duplication of effort, make sure to find out if other institutions
have already digitized, or are planning to digitize, the same or similar
materials. This knowledge may affect the priorities and design of your
project, provide a model to follow, or lead to a collaborative effort.
Queries to relevant web search engines, electronic mailing lists, and
professional associations can assist in this procedure.
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2. Quantify the size of collections |
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It is important to
establish a record of the volume of materials in your collections. This
inventory will allow you to estimate the size of archival groupings and
accumulated sets of material types, as well as tally the components of
special groupings. Some of the material types you are likely to consider
for digital projects are drawings, photographs, prints, maps, manuscripts,
and printed texts (books, journals, broadsides, and ephemera). The size
of collections and their components plays a crucial role in planning digital
projects because the fundamental integrity of any cataloging project relies
on the confidence that the material included represents a complete set
of information at some definable level (which ranges somewhere between
all that you have to all that there is).
Since there will
always be funding and time constraints on digital projects, the scope
of a project will always be planned around how much digitization the budget
allows for.The physical size of materials is also an important piece of
information for planning digital projects because of the variety of sizes
that different scanning tools will accommodate. The size of the original
determines the quality of the digital image, particularly if there is
a need for intermediate reductive copies, which reduce the sharpness and
fidelity of the original. If nothing else, a distinction needs to be made
between materials conforming to standard scanner or camera formats and
those that are oversized and will require special treatment. Of course,
the more complex the process and the more sophisticated the needed technology,
the more costly the digital product.
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3. Assess the suitability of materials for digitization |
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Some historical material
lends itself to digitization and online access, and other material does
not. Since not all material will be digitized (at least, not all at once),
some initial choices need to be made that will prioritize some material
types, subject areas, and collections over others. You will inevitably
start planning digital projects for your best and most desirable collections
or materials, which are already well known to you. But you must consider
the remainder of your collections in some critical way and determine the
nature and extent of their content and their usefulness to researchers.
(This is why it is important to have made a survey of your historical
collections prior to planning a digital project.)Another factor in this
assessment involves determining the extent to which an object or its information
value will be represented through digitization. Some practical advantage
needs to be identified. It may be to provide access to fragile documents
that cannot be viewed any other way (as long as they are readable both
in reality and in facsimile). It may be to allow for searching important
texts in a way not available before. It may be to assemble texts or views
from a number of libraries in a single source. It may be to create a digital
archive that will contribute images and data for other research and educational
applications.
Conversely, digitization
could result in a collection of images without direct associations to
user needs, research goals, educational applications, preservation plans,
or organizational priorities. Such materials and/or collections should
be identified, but ranked low for project planning until more reasons
emerge.In considering a collection's suitability for digitization, decisions
need to be made as to the effort required to create a valid facsimile
of the material types it contains. In many cases, simply reproducing the
historical material as a digital image will be sufficient. But historical
materials often require some form of transcription to improve readability
or make the text searchable. Currently, there are two options for digitizing
text: having the computer convert the text through a process called Optical
Character Recognition (OCR) or entering the text manually by retyping
it (i.e., "key entry"). The document usually dictates the method
you choose. All handwritten materials and many printed texts published
prior to the twentieth century cannot be accurately reproduced with current
OCR technology and will have to be rekeyed. Obviously, this is very time-consuming,
and the library must decide just how accessible documents need to be.
The content of a
historical document may not rely on the text alone, but may include illustrations
and other graphic images, at times on the same page. Each material type
presents its own special conditions for digitization. How is the information
on the verso of a photograph retained? Is the original or a surrogate
(such as microfilm or slides) more appropriate for the capture? How faithful
does color representation or detail need to be? Also, bound items will
be very difficult to scan if they do not open at least 90 degrees or have
texts or images too close to the binding. Images of large maps and plans
will need to be significantly reduced in size to be viewable on computer
screens and thus will lose much of their spatial context. Existing microfilm
may not have sufficient clarity or resolution for digital reproduction
to adequately capture its data. For photographic collections, existing
original negatives or transparencies are usually preferable to prints
since they usually hold more information. (Exceptions include fine art
photographs where the vintage print represents the photographer's interpretation
of the image.) These and other factors will have roles to play in determining
the suitability of a collection for a digital project.
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4. Consider the physical condition of the materials |
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So many historical materials are old and fragile that the physical condition
of materials is a very important consideration when planning a digital project.
You need to evaluate how much damage will be caused by the handling required
to digitize these materials, and whether it is worth the risk. However,
digitization should not be considered an alternative to responsible collection
care; that is, a digital image is not an appropriate replacement for a deteriorating
original. If a valuable object or collection needs conservation, that work
can be incorporated into a digital project and serve other needs of your
historical collections.
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IV. How to select collections and materials for a digital project |
1. Selecting a project |
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A digital project can
be approached in two ways. The ideal project occurs when an entire collection
can be selected and funds are available and staff can be allocated to undertake
it. This is why having a good understanding of your library's historical
collections is important. Even if support for a project requires that it
must be phased in over an extended period of time, it is still advantageous
to work with complete collections. It is sometimes beneficial to consider
collaborations with other libraries to make the digital collection more
comprehensive in range and detail of content and to provide users with more
complete access. More than likely, however, digital projects will be planned
to conform to a more limited budget. But this reality should not discourage
you from initiating a project; slow progress is better than none, particularly
with such neglected material. And as long as the resulting collection is
comprehensive at some modified level, the information system will be useful
to researchers and can be expected to expand with data digitized in future
projects.
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2. Selecting materials: developing selection criteria |
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It is imperative that
a digital project be planned around selection criteria that thoroughly characterize
the historical materials and their information value. Good selection criteria
address all the predictable dimensions of the materials and the applications
in which they will be put to use.Digital projects planned for archival groupings
or accumulated sets of materials, genres, or categories should provide a
comprehensive record of the collection at one level or another. Otherwise,
users cannot rely on the accuracy of responses to their queries. A collection
may be all of a certain benefactor's gift; all of a certain material type;
everything relevant to a subject, individual, geographical area, or time
period; or a combination of any or all of these. The data set can be as
large or as small as a comprehensive definition will allow, and it can range
from a part of a small collection in a single library to a combination of
collections from many libraries. Usually, the scale of the digital project
will depend on the funding or staff allocated to it. Therefore, it is important
to review your collections and outline a digitizing strategy before you
plan a particular digital project.Selection criteria for digital projects
planned around a compilation of materials from different historical collections
(and, perhaps, from different libraries) are more complicated. Ensuring
a comprehensive record within the scope of the project theme is as fundamental
in this case as with archival groupings and accumulated sets, but other
factors will apply. For example, in The New York Public Library's digital
compilation project "Travels Along the Hudson," five additional
sets of criteria were created to direct selections.
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Selections based on theme: |
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Materials associated
with the themes of transportation, commerce, and travel on the Hudson River.
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Selections based on regional geography: |
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Materials representing
the geographic extent of the Hudson from its source in Lake Tear of the
Clouds in the Adirondack Mountains to its confluence with the Atlantic.
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Selections based on historic period: |
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Materials produced during the nineteenth century, but more particularly
from the beginning of national transportation and commercial development
along the Hudson (ca. 1785) to its commemoration with the Hudson-Fulton
Celebration (1909).
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Selections based on subject headings: |
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"Core" subject headings associated with broad patterns of American
history served as guides for making selections. There are a number of standardized
listings to follow, and they are crucial to linking information more globally,
both within the project and with other systems. These headings include subjects
such as Architecture, Art, Commerce, Community History, Engineering, Industry,
Landscape Architecture, Literature, Maritime History, Military History,
Social History, Transportation, and Travel/Recreation.
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Selections based on material types: |
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Materials representing
the broad spectrum of media associated with the themes, such as drawings,
manuscripts, maps, photographs, print views, printed music, printed texts
(books, journals, broadsides, and ephemera), and three-dimensional objects.
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V. How to organize information |
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Digital projects are all about organizing information in systematic and
hierarchical ways. If nothing else, digital projects with historical materials
are worthwhile for what they contribute to upgrading the low level of cataloging
that currently exists.
While the organization of digitized material follows standard database formats,
it also operates in an information system customized for the particular
intellectual content it contains and the unique uses to which it will be
applied. Most standard catalog data function in generalized or global reference
systems and need to be augmented with data sets that represent the more
specific subject and geographical orientation of the historical materials.
In the case of the "Travels" project, historical materials were
cataloged more intensively. Hudson River views used as illustrations in
books and periodicals were cataloged separately because of their importance
outside of the context of the publication. New sets of core data were created
to focus the materials on the themes of transportation and travel, the nineteenth-century
time frame, and Hudson River locales. In addition, wider latitude was used
in recording personal names, place names, and subjects in already existing
catalog fields. In the end, it was determined that the more information
that was entered into a catalog, including unclassified data recorded in
memo fields, the better the opportunities were going to be for locating
information about regional and local history. Some concessions were also
made. The best level of cataloging that could be expected for manuscript
material was at the collection level. Rather than defer digitizing the record
of this material until item-level cataloging was possible, an inventory
containing existing descriptions and finding aids was created.
Once pictorial and text materials are digitized, these graphic displays
are linked to the catalog to associate each image to the larger collection
of materials and to link users with additional thematic and contextual data.
Because the historical record begins but does not end with your project,
both the catalog and the image set invite links and additions from other
sources in future stages. The selection criteria can be applied on a case-by-case
basis as new collections are surveyed and cataloged. Ideally, the bibliography
can support unlimited source material. Any additions to the digital archive
will be integrated effectively through the classification system established
by the selection criteria.
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VI. How to deliver materials effectively |
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Goals for the delivery
of materials, whether on the web or at computer workstations on-site, should
be established early in the process. Digitized projects bring together specialized
collections and research tools for a diverse audience, and they should be
responsive to the needs of individuals, communities, and institutions. Some
critical goals for web-based presentation include presenting heterogeneous
resources in a coherent way, bringing together diverse collections, and
integrating access to digital and print resources. As digitized collections
mature, goals for web presentation should create an online research environment
that will support both novice and expert users, enable users to tailor collections
to their own needs and interests, and support collaboration with colleagues.
The functionality of the final product, like keyword searching, field searching,
browsing, selecting, and annotating, should support these overall goals
and be reflected in the project's digitization and the bibliographic components.
For instance, texts must be encoded in SGML to be searchable, individual
images must be accompanied by some descriptive data if they are to be easily
identified, and all materials must be related to broad subject categories
if the collection is to be "browsable." Preserving and presenting
the true context of the materials are critical in delivering digitized materials
on the web. This needs to be a defining principle of the project and be
addressed in each phase of the project.
A key goal for "Travels" was to present collections on the web
that are distributed throughout the participating institutions and to provide
access to content that is diverse in original format and in the level of
detail of descriptive information. In the face of great diversity of content
and description, a coherent approach to displaying collections, navigating
the site, and indexing and presenting search results was planned as materials
were selected. The interface for "Travels" also drew together
different technical architectures. Images and texts are on different servers;
the images are delivered via a database application while the texts use
an SGML-to-HTML application.
Planning a digitization project involves bringing together print and digital
items in a coherent way. A user looking for an item in the library catalog
should be able to identify it without regard to whether it is available
in its original physical form or as a digital or microfilm reproduction.
Early planning should address the presentation of intellectual descriptions
of originals and reproductions in a fully integrated way through the website,
the library catalog, and archival finding aids. Support for printing, requesting
permissions, and ordering copies online will also afford more flexible use
of digitized collections.
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